Certain applications of monoclonal antibodies in cancer therapy rely on the ability of the antibody to specifically deliver to the cancerous tissues cytotoxic effector functions such as immune-enhancing isotypes, toxins or drugs. An alternative approach is to utilize monoclonal antibodies to directly affect the survival of tumor cells by depriving them of essential extracellular proliferation signals, such as those mediated by growth factors through their cell receptors. One of the attractive targets in this approach is the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFr), which binds EGF and transforming growth factor α (TGFα) (see, e.g., Ullrich et al., Cell 61:203-212, 1990; Baselga et al., Pharmacol. Ther. 64: 127-154,1994; Mendelsohn et al., in Biologic Therapy of Cancer 607-623, Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co., 1995; Fan et al., Curr. Opin. Oncol. 10: 67-73,1998). Binding of EGF or TGFα to EGFr, a 170 kDa transmembrane cell surface glycoprotein, triggers a cascade of cellular biochemical events, including EGFr autophosphorylation and internalization, which culminates in cell proliferation (see, e.g., Ullrich et al., Cell 61:203-212, 1990).
Several observations implicate EGFr in supporting development and progression of human solid tumors. EGFr has been demonstrated to be overexpressed on many types of human solid tumors (see, e.g., Mendelsohn Cancer Cells 7:359 (1989), Mendelsohn Cancer Biology 1:339-344 (1990), Modjtahedi and Dean Int'l J. Oncology 4:277-296 (1994)). For example, EGFr overexpression has been observed in certain lung, breast, colon, gastric, brain, bladder, head and neck, ovarian, and prostate carcinomas (see, e.g., Modjtahedi and Dean Int'l J. Oncology4:277-296 (1994)). Certain groups have reported that an increase in receptor levels is associated with a poor clinical prognosis (see, e.g., Baselga et al. Pharmacol. Ther. 64: 127-154,1994; Mendelsohn et al., Biologic Therapy of Cancer pp. 607-623, Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co., 1995; Modjtahedi et al., Intl. J. of Oncology 4:277-296,1994; Gullick, Br. Medical Bulletin, 47:87-98,1991; Salomon et al., Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol. 19: 183-232,1995). Other studies, however, suggest that prognosis cannot be directly correlated to EGFr overexpression (see, e.g., Rusch et al. Clin. Cancer Res. 3:515-522, 1997; Pfeiffer et al., Br. J. Cancer 74:86-91, 1996; Fontanini et al., Clin. Cancer Res. 4:241-249,1998; Greatens et al., Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care. Med. 157:1093-1097,1998; D'Amico et al., J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 117:736-743,1999; Pastorino et al., J. Clin. Oncol. 15:2858-2865,1997). Both epidermal growth factor (EGF) and transforming growth factor-alpha (TGF-α) have been demonstrated to bind to EGFr and to lead to cellular proliferation and tumor growth. In many cases, increased surface EGFr expression was accompanied by production of TGFα or EGF by tumor cells, suggesting the involvement of an autocrine growth control in the progression of those tumors (see, e.g., Baselga et al. Pharmacol. Ther. 64: 127-154,1994; Mendelsohn et al., Biologic Therapy of Cancer pp. 607-623, Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co., 1995; Modjtahedi et al., Intl. J. of Oncology 4:277-296, 1994; Salomon et al., Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol. 19: 183-232,1995).
Thus, certain groups have proposed that antibodies against EGF, TGF-α, and EGFr may be useful in the therapy of tumors expressing or overexpressing EGF-r (see, e.g., Mendelsohn Cancer Cells 7:359 (1989), Mendelsohn Cancer Biology 1:339-344 (1990), Modjtahedi and Dean Int'l J. Oncology 4:277-296 (1994), Tosi et al. Int'l J. Cancer 62:643-650 (1995)). Indeed, it has been demonstrated that anti-EGFr antibodies blocking EGF and TGF-α binding to the receptor appear to inhibit tumor cell proliferation. At the same time, however, anti-EGFr antibodies have not appeared to inhibit EGF and TGF-α independent cell growth (Modjtahedi and Dean Int'l J. Oncology 4:277-296 (1994)).
Monoclonal antibodies specific to the human EGFr, capable of neutralizing EGF and TGFα binding to tumor cells and of inhibiting ligand-mediated cell proliferation in vitro, have been generated from mice and rats (see, e.g., Baselga et al., Pharmacol. Ther. 64: 127-154,1994; Mendelsohn et al., in Biologic Therapy of Cancer 607-623, Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co., 1995; Fan et al., Curr. Opin. Oncol. 10: 67-73, 1998; Modjtahedi et al., Intl. J. Oncology 4: 277-296,1994). Some of those antibodies, such as the mouse 108, 225 (see, e.g., Aboud-Pirak et al., J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 80: 1605-1611,1988) and 528 (see, e.g., Baselga et al., Pharmacol. Ther. 64: 127-154, 1994; Mendelsohn et al., in Biologic Therapy of Cancer 607-623, Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co., 1995) or the rat ICR16, ICR62 and ICR64 (see, e.g., Modjtajedi et al., Intl. J. Oncology 4: 277-296,1994; Modjtahedi et al., Br. J. Cancer 67:247-253, 1993; Modjtahedi et al., Br. J. Cancer 67: 254-261,1993) monoclonal antibodies, were evaluated extensively for their ability to affect tumor growth in xenograft mouse models. Most of the anti-EGFr monoclonal antibodies were efficacious in preventing tumor formation in athymic mice when administered with the human tumor cells (Baselga et al. Pharmacol. Ther. 64: 127-154,1994; Modjtahedi et al., Br. J. Cancer 67: 254-261,1993). When injected into mice bearing established human tumor xenografts, the mouse monoclonal antibodies 225 and 528 caused partial tumor regression and required the co-administration of chemotherapeutic agents, such as doxorubicin or cisplatin, for eradication of the tumors (Baselga et al. Pharmacol. Ther. 64: 127-154, 1994; Mendelsohn et al., in Biologic Therapy of Cancer 607-623, Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co., 1995; Fan et al., Cancer Res. 53: 4637-4642, 1993; Baselga et al., J. NatI. Cancer Inst. 85: 1327-1333, 1993). A chimeric version of the 225 monoclonal antibody (C225), in which the mouse antibody variable regions are linked to human constant regions, exhibited an improved in vivo anti-tumor activity but only at high doses (see, e.g., Goldstein et al., Clinical Cancer Res. 1: 1311-1318,1995; Prewett et al., J. Immunother. Emphasis Tumor Immunol. 19: 419-427,1996). The rat ICR16, ICR62, and ICR64 antibodies caused regression of established tumors but not their complete eradication (Modjtahedi et al., Br. J. Cancer 67: 254-261,1993). These results established EGFr as a promising target for antibody therapy against EGFr-expressing solid tumors and led to human clinical trials with the C225 monoclonal antibody in multiple human solid cancers (see, e.g., Baselga et al. Pharmacol. Ther. 64: 127-154, 1994; Mendelsohn et al., Biologic Therapy of Cancer pp. 607-623, Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co., 1995; Modjtahedi et al., Intl. J. of Oncology 4:277-296,1994).
Certain advances in the biological arts made it possible to produce a fully human anti-EGFr antibody. Using mice transgenic for human immunoglobulin genes (Xenomouse™ technology, Abgenix, Inc.), human antibodies specific for human EGFr were developed (see, e.g., Mendez, Nature Genetics, 15: 146-156,1997; Jakobovits, Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 31(1-2): 33-42,1998; Jakobovits, Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs, 7(4): 607-614,1998; Yang et al., Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol. 38(1):17-23, 2001; WO98/24893; WO98/50433). One such antibody, panitumumab, a human IgG2 monoclonal antibody with an affinity of 5×10−11 M for human EGFr, has been shown to block binding of EGF to the EGFr, to block receptor signaling, and to inhibit tumor cell activation and proliferation in vitro (see, e.g., WO98/50433; U.S. Pat. No. 6,235,883). Studies in athymic mice have demonstrated that panitumumab also has in vivo activity, not only preventing the formation of human epidermoid carcinoma A431 xenografts in athymic mice, but also eradicating already-established large A431 tumor xenografts (see, e.g., Yang et al., Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol. 38(1):17-23, 2001; Yang et al., Cancer Res. 59(6):1236-43, 1999). Panitumumab has been considered for the treatment of renal carcinoma, colorectal adenocarcinoma, prostate cancer, and non small cell squamous lung carcinoma, among other cancers (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Publication No. 2004/0033543), and clinical trials are underway with that antibody.
In certain cell types, the binding of growth factors, such as EGFr, prevents apoptosis by stimulation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (“PI3K”) and B-Raf. PI3K activation triggers a molecular cascade leading to the downregulation of the central pathways controlling programmed cell death (Yao, R., Science 267:2003-2006,1995). Members of the Raf family also have been identified as regulators of programmed cell death in mammals (Hunter, Cell 80:225-236,1995). In Raf knockouts, mice lacking B-Raf showed disturbances in cell survival, while mice lacking Raf-1 or A-Raf did not show such disturbances (see, e.g., Pritchard, Curr. Biol. 6:614-617,1996; Wojnowski, Nat. Genet. 16:293-297,1997), indicating that B-Raf may possess specific functions in cell death regulation. Both PI3K and B-Raf are of interest in cell proliferation disorders, particularly cancer.